Buddhism is one of the oldest world religions, spread in the countries of South, Southeast and East Asia (Ceylon, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, MNR, North Korea, DRV, South Korea, Japan, South Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Burma). In the USSR, there are followers of Buddhism in the Buryat, Kalmyk and Tuva autonomous republics. Now over 300 million rubles. Lay people and about 800,000 monks and nuns are influenced by Buddhism. For many of them, it forms the basis of their worldview, is their religion. They perform their rites in Buddhist monasteries and places of worship, which number almost two million .1
Having emerged more than two thousand years ago in India as a religious and philosophical teaching, Buddhism has created a unique canonical literature and numerous religious institutions .2 A broad interpretation of the philosophical tenets of Buddhism promoted its symbiosis, assimilation, and compromise with various local cults, religions, and ideologies, which allowed it to penetrate all spheres of public life, from religious practice and art to political and economic theories. Even today, Buddhist organizations are an active political force, sometimes contributing to the struggle for national independence of countries that have taken the path of independent economic and social development, and sometimes joining forces with local reaction and imperialist circles.

Depending on the specific tasks and local conditions, modern Buddhism can be considered both as a religion, as a philosophy, as an ideology, as a cultural complex, and as a way of life. The study of Buddhism is an important link in understanding the socio-political, ethical and cultural systems of Eastern societies in which Buddhist communities existed. Even now, in some areas where Buddhism is influential, its adherents often respect the traditions and authority of monks and village elders more than the laws and institutions of the central government. This is the great potential power of Buddhism, which manifests itself in various reactionary regimes. An attempt to understand the role that Buddhism plays in modern life, attention to its ideas has caused a huge flow of literature: over the past hundred years alone, more than 100 thousand studies, monographs, articles, etc. have been devoted to Buddhism. Among them, prominent places are occupied by the works of Russian scientists I. P. Minaev, F. I. Shcherbatsky, S. F. Oldenburg, V. P. Vasiliev, O. O. Rosenberg, E. E. Obermiller, A. I. Vostrikov, V. S. Vorobyov-Desyatovsky. Works of acad. Full name Щербатского ("The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of World "Dharma". L 1923; "The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana". Л. 1927; "Buddhist Logic". Vol. I-II. L. 1930-1932), considered classical in the world-

1 J. Schecter. The New Face of Buddha. Tokyo. 1967, p. 1.

2 Buddhist canonical literature consists mainly of four collections of" sacred " texts. These are the "Tipitaka" ("Three baskets" of knowledge) in Pali; the Chinese " Tripitaka "(pronounced" Tripitaka "in Sanskrit, sutra, dharma, and in Pali - "Tipitaka", sutta, Dhamma); the Tibetan canon" Ganjur "and" Danjur"; a scattered collection of Sanskrit texts. The Tripitaka consists of three parts: Vinaya-pitaka (disciplinary regulations of members of the Buddhist community - sangha); Sutra-pitaka (collection of stories and instructions (sutras) allegedly told by the Buddha himself or his disciples); Abhidharma-pitaka (philosophy, metaphysical explanation of reality). "Ganjur" is a collection of sutras, and "Danjur" is a commentary and analysis of sutras. The huge volume of local religious literature, written in dozens of languages, is based on canonical texts. According to the Pali Canon, the Buddha alone has more than 80,000 instructions and sermons delivered by him during the years of his missionary activity.

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They have revolutionized the understanding of the basic philosophical concepts of Buddhism. Soviet scientists continue the long-standing traditions of Russian ouddology3 . The purpose of this essay is to introduce the reader to some of the philosophical, historical, religious and social aspects of Buddhism.

1. Buddhist teaching

Buddhism is a religious system of practice and doctrine based on the ancient religious and philosophical teachings of India, the cornerstone of which is the belief in reincarnation. The basic idea of Buddhism, which is that "life is suffering" and "there is a way to salvation", does not contrast Buddhism with other religious systems. However, like any religion, Buddhism is far from a science. It is well known that man is a social being. Canonical Buddhism denies this indisputable fact, considering man as a separate world in itself, generating itself and destroying or saving itself. According to Buddhist teachings, the social world is a mirage in which a person is floundering, overcome by chimerical passions, and the participation of a person in social activities, in the class and national liberation struggle is considered the greatest evil for him. This is the class essence of this teaching, which in principle is hostile to the working people's cause not only as a religious delusion, but also in its ideological orientation. To make sure of this, it is enough to get acquainted with the essence of Buddhism, which is set forth in the so-called four "truths" discovered and formulated by the monk Gautama (Buddha) in the middle of the first millennium BC.

The first "truth" is " there is suffering." It is certainly and necessarily experienced by any living being, so all life is suffering. "Birth is suffering, disorder is suffering, illness is suffering, and death is suffering. The connection with the unpleasant is suffering. Separation from the pleasant is suffering. Not having what you want also leads to suffering. In short, everything connected with the five skandhas (attachment to existence) is suffering. " 4 According to the teachings of Buddhism, the basic law of the universe is the law of dependent origin, according to which no phenomenon occurs without a corresponding cause. However, based on this law, it is impossible to establish the root cause of any phenomenon or action. Therefore, Buddhism considers and accepts the existing world as it is. And this predestination of the social order cannot be changed by the efforts of people.

At the same time, Buddhism asserts that all things and phenomena, both material and spiritual, are based on certain elements (dharmas). By their very nature, dharmas are passive and aroused by a certain type of energy, the source of which is the conscious volitional actions, thoughts and words of a person. Aroused dharmas become carriers of psychic, physical, chemical, biological and other qualities and are in constant motion and change. The quieted dharma loses its qualitative distinctions, as if it dissolves, disappears like the dying flame of a candle. Buddhism teaches that objective reality, given to a person in sensations, is only an endless stream of ever-changing dharmas, and therefore the earthly world is a random game of excited dharmas, and therefore it is illusory, unstable, changeable. Nature is also in a constant process of change, just like man himself. The aroused dharmas form five forms of existence-skandhas, through which attachment to the mundane manifests itself: the body, feelings, perceptions and sensations, impulses, and acts of consciousness. In total, these five forms create what is called a person. The characteristics of the skandhas depend on the actions of the individual. Good or bad human activity in the past opr-

3 During the post-war years, a number of works on or containing information about Buddhism were published in the USSR. See Arya Shura. Garland of jatak. M. 1962; "Dhammapada". Introduction and Comments by V. N. Toporov, Moscow, 1960; G. M. Bongard-Levin, G. F. Ilyin. Ancient India, Moscow, 1909; A. N. Kochetov. Buddhism, Moscow, 1968; E. S. Semyona. History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Moscow, 1969; K. M. Gerasimova. Renewal movement of the Buryat Lamaist clergy (1917-1930). Ulan-Ude, 1964, etc.

4 Cit. by: E. Conze. Buddhism. Its Essence and Development. L. [1962], p. 43.

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It defines the type of person's birth (his body), his social status, psychology, and consciousness. This activity forms mental and physical aggregates in his new life in accordance with the whole of nature. In other words, the positive or negative actions of a person, his thoughts in this and previous life determine the best or worst new rebirth. Thus, according to the teachings of Buddhism, a person who was at the lowest rung of the class ladder could become a powerful ruler in a new life, and the latter, in turn, could be reborn either deprived of all rights, or even an animal. Being dependent on mental and physical aggregates, a person acquires six senses of cognition (eye, ear, nose, tongue, sensory organs, consciousness), through which he comes into contact with objects of feeling. This gives rise to new feelings and sensations that cause desire, and desire leads to attachment. Attachment runs through the entire life process and does not stop with the death of a being waiting for a new rebirth. Thus, a person starts a new life again: he becomes old again and dies after experiencing all kinds of grief, suffering, anxiety and despair. He is constantly moving in the circle of birth and death, and this continues as long as one is in the fetters of ignorance.

Everything that a person can comprehend, understand, or appreciate falls within the scope of his five skandhas, which make up the personality that manifests itself in egocentrism. But there is no one to blame for your suffering: it is your own fault; therefore, humbly endure all the torments and try to avoid them in the future. The five skandhas, in turn, produce five effects: activity, ignorance, passion, desire, and karma (literally, retribution), which, after the death of the old physical body, cause five future effects: the new body, feelings, perceptions and sensations, impulses, and consciousness. This endless process of reincarnation is called the "wheel of life" or samsara. By spinning eternally on this wheel, one is doomed to physical and mental suffering, to suffering from the consciousness of the impermanence of happiness and well-being, to suffering caused by the flashes and disappearance of dharmas as transcendental or illusory phases of existence. The last moment is not realized by a person, it is beyond the limits of his consciousness, but it is very important for understanding the category of suffering. Through his six senses of knowledge, a person comes into contact with the external environment, which affects his five skandhas, exciting them, and thereby further binds a person to the "wheel of life", and therefore increases his suffering. Thus, according to Buddhism, the moment of suffering is known not only through sensory experience, but also embedded in the very process of life. Therefore, being is defined by three qualities: impermanence, suffering, and the inseparability of the self from other forms of life.

The second "truth" is " there are causes of suffering." "This is the longing that leads to a new reincarnation, accompanied by pleasure and attachment; this longing finds satisfaction here (in this world - V. K.) and there (in heaven-V. K.) and consists of sensory experience, the desire for existence and rebirth in a world without forms" 5 , that is, in the sky. A person, using material things and spiritual values, considers them as real, permanent, so he wants to possess and enjoy them, refusing others. Such desires lead to the continuation of the life process, creating a continuous chain of struggle for existence. However, these desires, according to Buddhism, are stimulated by ignorance and lead to volitional action that forms karma. This process can occur in both passive and active forms. The active side of existence is possible when the dharmas are aroused and lead to a karmic effect. The latter is generated by consciousness. Therefore, where there is no consciousness, there is no karma, so unintentional actions do not affect karma. According to the law of the dependent principle, the process of karma is also infinite. "Every living being has his karma, it is his property, his inheritance, his cause, his relative, his refuge. It is karma that brings sentient beings to low or high states." Since volitional actions are motivated by desires, it is the desires that first determine the quality of karma and thereby constantly renew and support the process of reincarnation.

5 F. Story. The Four Noble Truths. Randy. 1961, p. 29.

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Karma is more of a philosophical category than a physical one. "Where is karma?" King Milinda asked the Nagasena monk. "O Maharaja! Nagasena replied. - You can't say that karma is stored somewhere: in a fleeting thought or in any other parts of the body. But depending on the mind and body, it manifests itself at the right moment; just as you can't say that the mango fruit is stored somewhere in the mango tree, but depending on the mango tree, it ripens in the right season. " 6 Buddhist literature is very vague about what karma is and how it is transmitted through the chain of reincarnations. Karma is not limited to time and space, it belongs only to the ethical sphere, being the result of the flow of consciousness. Karma can be cosmic, national, generic, family, individual. It can be called the law of retribution or the law of ethical causality, according to which everyone reaps what they sowed in the past. In its function, karma coincides with the law of dependent origination. Figuratively speaking, you can compare the life process with a river, the channel of which is determined by its karma. The life of the river is supported by thousands of streams (desires), which carry both pure waters (good deeds) and impurity (bad deeds). By discarding impurities or, on the contrary, absorbing them, the river can change its future karma (but not the present one) and in the next existence reincarnate into a clear mountain stream or a fetid river, the course of which will again be predetermined by karma (this is an allegory, because karma is created only by conscious actions). Similarly, a person who refrains from bad actions or, conversely, commits them, creates good or bad karma for himself in the future. But even good deeds and intentions do not save him from reincarnation and, consequently, from suffering, since good is also the result of his desires. "Just as a tree, though uprooted, continues to grow if its root is not damaged and strong, so suffering is born again and again if the tendency to desire is not eradicated." 7 So there are inevitable sufferings for everyone who lives, and no one can avoid them. Even the Buddhists themselves claim that no one has succeeded in achieving nirvana since the Buddha.

The third "truth" is " it is possible to stop suffering." "This is the complete cessation of desires, renunciation of them, withdrawal from them, release from them, non-attachment to them." 8 The complete elimination of both good and bad desires corresponds to the state of nirvana, when a person is turned off from the process of rebirth. Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhist teaching. Different schools and branches of Buddhism understand this state differently, depending on how they interpret the nature of the dharmas. The so-called old wisdom school, or Theravada, holds that the quieted dharmas are outside the life process, behind the " wheel of life." These dharmas are incomprehensible, impossible to describe or describe. Therefore, when describing nirvana, Theravadins resort to negative terms: unborn, without origin, without structure, incorruptible, undying, free from disease, grief and filth. According to the Theravadins, dharma, devoid of excitatory impulses, becomes invisible and nothing can be said about it. "Just as the flame of a candle is extinguished without a trace by a gust of wind, so the saint is freed from name and form, disappearing without a trace." 9 The Madhyamika school considers dharmas unreal, the product of a sick consciousness of an unenlightened person. And since the dharmas are only a figment of the imagination, the only reality is emptiness, and there is no difference between the existing world and nirvana. Every "enlightened" person is aware of this truth within himself, and it is the only reality or nirvana for him, and everything else is only a visible illusion. Some northern schools of Buddhism teach that the visible world is only a product of consciousness that is identified with the absolute, and nirvana is achieved by accumulating pure consciousness through religious practices and so - called meditation-reflection, contemplation (for example, the Yogachara school). But no matter how different the interpretations of nirvana may be, all schools of Buddhism believe that ignorance and desire prevent the realization of the ultimate truth and the achievement of a stable and permanent consciousness of satisfaction, that is, happiness.-

6 C.L.A. Silva. The Four Essential Doctrines of Buddhism. Colombo. 1948, p. 113.

7 "Dhammapada", No. 338.

8 E. Conze. Op. cit., p. 43.

9 "The Sutta-Nipata". New ed. by D. Andersen and H. Smith. L. 1913, 1074. 6.

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it is necessary to overcome ignorance and destroy sensual desires. "Even the gods envy those who are enlightened, full of deep thoughts, who enjoy the calmness of liberation, are devoted to reflection, and are wise." 10 So, nirvana is not self-destruction and not the extinction of life, but a state of liberation from one's "I", in which nothing can excite a person. However, in real life practice, it turns out that no one can determine the degree of "enlightenment", and often these "enlightened" are depicted in religious texts and commentaries as deceivers and crooks.

The fourth "truth" is "there is a way to end suffering." "This is the noble eightfold path, which consists of right understanding, right intention, right speech, right behavior, right life, right effort, right attitude, right concentration." 11 Since, according to the Buddhist faith, only conscious volitional actions determined by passion or desire are the excitatory impulses of physical and mental phenomena, the source of these impulses is not in the external environment, but in the living being itself. Animals suffer passively as a result of past actions (karma) dominated by lust, ill-will, and delusion, and cannot influence the life process, because their actions are unmotivated and unconscious 12 . A person performs his actions consciously and has the opportunity to choose. Therefore, the external environment depends on him, or rather, on his mental makeup. "Inside this body, a mortal... the world is found, and the origin of the world, and the cessation of the world " 13 . Considered as a microcosm, the fire of passions, desires, anger, ignorance, anxiety, attachment, birth, putrefaction, death, grief, despair, despondency, etc. rages inside the person, continuously receiving "new fuel" through the person's contacts with the outside world. Just because of his rebirth, man is filled with desires and passions, ignorant, and the experience of life only increases his suffering.

But since all living beings are the products of long, endless reincarnations from the higher state in which they originally lived, the four noble qualities of kindness, compassion, sympathy, and calmness are preserved in each of them. A person has the right to choose a life goal and, accordingly, moral behavior. Therefore, unlike animals, it can develop the noble qualities inherent in it. According to the Buddhist teaching, there is a way and method of comprehending the "supreme truth", that is, the path that leads to the suppression of desires. This path is called the "middle" one. The definition of "middle" has explanations both from a religious point of view and from the point of view of Buddhist morality and philosophy. At the time of the emergence of Buddhism in India, there were numerous religious systems and cults, at opposite poles of which were Vedantism and asceticism. Vedantism was based on the authority of ancient sacred texts - the Vedas, according to which the Brahmin caste was recognized as dominant among other castes, and the Brahmins themselves were considered intermediaries between gods and people. The most important place was given to cult rites and sacrifices. Early Buddhism, in particular Gautama Buddha, an aristocrat by birth, "did not oppose" the social structure of Indian society at that time, considering the structural organization of society to be a product of the world's natural law. However, he "claimed" that only the moral qualities of a person can determine his social status and contribute to his liberation: "He is not a brahmana by birth, but only by knowledge and moral behavior." According to legend, Gautama knew from his own experience what an ascetic way of life was, and rejected this teaching, which considered the body an enemy of the mind and sought to weaken the bonds of the body through torture and deprivation. Gautama realized that the weakening of vital functions leads to confusion of consciousness. He formulated

10 "Dhammapada", No. 181.

11 E. Conze. Op. cit., p. 43.

12 According to Buddhist teachings, when life begins, the first people to appear are those who, as a result of their actions, form good or bad karma. Due to good karma, some are reincarnated as gods, angels, and humans; others are reincarnated as animals, insects, fish, and plants due to bad karma.

13 E. Conze. Op. cit., p. 97.

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the idea of a "middle" moral path, based on the fact that no other religious path associated with cult or ascetic practices can lead to liberation from suffering. From the point of view of Buddhist philosophy, for pure dharma, categories such as good and evil, love and hate, conscience and dishonesty lose their concreteness and become relative, conditioned categories. Therefore, the boundary of truth lies between philosophical categories of opposites. If we talk about getting out of the life process, about the path to salvation, then both good and bad actions are determined by conscious actions that form karma and, accordingly, make a person spin in the wheel of life. The path chosen by Gautama Buddha lies between good and evil, hence its name "middle".

A person who wishes to follow this path must believe, consciously or blindly, that there is a continuous process of reincarnation, governed by the law of karma; that for him the only refuge in this life is the Buddha, his four "truths" and the Buddhist community (Sangha); that strict observance of all the rules prescribed by Buddhism is ethical. behaviors and contemplative exercises will lead a person to release from suffering. The "righteous" path leading to salvation should first of all protect or reduce the influence of the external environment on a person, weaken his contacts with the social environment. But as long as a person is involved in social life, connected to family and home, surrounded by material things, he will not be able to overcome his desires. It is only by renouncing worldly life that he can attain moral perfection. The morality of Buddhists is not so much related to the behavior of an individual in society, but rather to his ability to control his sensual desires. The "middle" path is usually divided by purpose into three stages: morality, meditation, and wisdom. In the first stage, knowledge is irrelevant if it is not related to the practice of controlling the body, the seat of all passions and desires. "Look at this ornate image, a body full of flaws, made up of parts, sickly, full of many thoughts, in which there is neither certainty nor permanence." 14 As long as the body's reflex desire complex is not suppressed, all reflection and religious practice will not be effective. If a man (Buddhism believes that a woman is too attached to the earthly existence and can reach nirvana only by being reborn as a man) feels unhappy when he is hungry or cold; if he looks with lust at girls walking down the street; if he is afraid to go out into the rain or cold from a warm room, then all his problems will be solved. thinking about the illusory and unnecessary nature of this existence is useless.

Having suppressed desires and attachments, a person becomes calm, but this calmness is purely external, because inside the body the "unbridled thought" continues to beat, generating desire. This state is like an agitated ocean with oil poured on its surface; but the elements raging inside the ocean can at any moment break through the thin film of oil and burst with even greater force.

To achieve inner peace and control the mind, the practice of meditation is used: yoga exercises, contemplation of various religious objects (there were up to 40 such objects), reflection on given topics (for example, about the Buddha, about death, etc.), rhythmic and calm breathing, different stages of trance and ecstasy, cultivation of infinite friendliness, compassion, sympathy to all living beings. The practice of meditation and the observance of moral norms, according to Buddhist canons, allow you to focus on thinking about the essence of being. From this state, one who follows the "middle" path can pass on to the path of the beginning of enlightenment, that is, to comprehend wisdom (prajna). However, wisdom is not achieved through analysis or observation, but through intuition and spiritual insight, a sudden realization of the truth. A word accidentally heard, an intuitive feeling of dissolution, the disappearance of one's "I", a phenomenon accidentally noticed - all these moments can be an impetus to "insight". But a sudden "epiphany" is only the first step to nirvana. In Buddhism, four stages of "enlightenment" are mentioned: the first is sotapanna (entering the potas leading to nirvana); the second is sakadagamin (the one who

14 "Dhammapada", N 147.

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the third is anagamin (one who will never return to this world); the fourth is an arhat (one who will attain nirvana after death). The various stages of" enlightenment " that a person achieves through self-contemplation and complete detachment from the outside world, pursued the ultimate goal - the blunting of all human feelings, the imaginary departure from the "world of suffering" and were the last stage on the path to nirvana. In practice, the social nature of man refutes these dogmas of Buddhism. Some researchers note a commercial approach to religion among believers who perform good deeds with a specific goal: to receive material or spiritual benefits as a reward.

As the caste system developed in India, Brahmanism first emerged from a number of religious and philosophical schools. The teaching of Buddhism developed at a time when Brahmanism was already recognized as the state religion of the main states of Northern India. Early Buddhism can be considered as the doctrine of the dependence of a person's social status on his past and present deeds. The transformation of Buddhism, first into a local state religion, and then into one of the world's religions, was mainly promoted by two provisions of this teaching. First, the Buddhist claim that social status and wealth indicate the number of virtues accumulated in "past lives" provided an opportunity for rulers to proclaim themselves ideal people in the state. This led to the absolutization of their power. In the future, this idea was developed and formalized in the Buddhist concept of kingship. Secondly, in the harsh conditions of class-caste isolationism, Buddhism left the oppressed masses with the hope of being reborn in better conditions of future life by strictly observing social and ethical norms of behavior or joining a religious community. This contributed to the growing popularity of Buddhism among the general population. It was not the religious-ethical theory of "enlightenment" that ensured the success of Buddhism, but its religious-social concept of "merits" that shape the fate of a person. First of all, Buddhism exalts rulers and confirms the "divine right" to high status and wealth, fixes existing social inequality, distracts the oppressed from the active struggle for improving and changing social conditions. And the philosophical tenets of Buddhism about the "middle way", nirvana, dharma, emptiness, the "cosmic body of the Buddha", etc., have always remained, as history shows, a secondary point for believers.

Thus, Buddhism, by diverting human consciousness from solving mundane issues, convincing that the real world is a continuous suffering for all people regardless of their social status, and offering everyone a "way of salvation", has become a convenient ideology for the ruling exploitative classes. Today, in a number of Western countries, there are attempts to present Buddhism as a kind of ethical theory, rather than a religion, but they are futile.

2. The personality of Gautama

Most Buddhologists are inclined to accept the possibility of the historical fact of the existence of Gautama-the future Buddha, but nothing more. Such a cautious and natural approach to this question is due to the lack of written records of Gautama's birth and life. The earliest parts of the Buddhist canon were written several centuries after the date of the supposed death of the founder of Buddhism.

Currently, five biographies of Gautama Buddha are known: Mahavastu, written in the second century A.D.; Lalitavistara, written in the second and third centuries A.D.; Buddhacharita, written by one of the Buddhist philosophers, the poet Ashvaghosh (I-II centuries A.D.); Nidanakatha (circa the first century B.C.); Abhinishkramanasutra, published from the pen of the Buddhist scholar Dharmagupta. Major controversies arise when determining the lifetime of Gautama: According to the official Buddhist calendar, Gautama was born in 623 BC and died in 544 BC, but most researchers consider his birth date to be 564 BC and his death date to be 483 BC15 .

15 E. Conze, Op. cit, p. 30.

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There are many legends about the life of the Buddha. Here is one of them. In 623 BC, a boy named Siddhartha was born into the family of a Shakya prince who ruled a small principality located somewhere on the border of modern India and Nepal . As a sixteen-year-old boy, Siddhartha married his cousin Yasodhara, and 13 years later they had a son. In the happiest years of his life, Siddhartha decided to become a hermit. He shaved his head, put on a yellow toga, and sneaked out of the palace, leaving his family behind. Later, when his disciples asked him why he did this, the Buddha replied:: "Why did I, being subject to birth, decay, disease, death, grief, and impurity, take up the study of nature? How exactly did I, who am subject to all these processes of nature, understand their uselessness and find the unattainable, unsurpassed, absolute protection that nirvana is? I left my home in search of the true good, in search of the incomparable, higher path to peace. " 17 After hearing about Gautama's renunciation of worldly life, he was joined by five disciples who decided to seek the truth together with Gautama. At that time in India, great importance was attached to various religious rites, ceremonies, penances, and sacrifices. There was a widespread belief that salvation could only be achieved through strict asceticism. For six years, Gautama led the most austere, ascetic life, his body dried up, his mind became clouded, he was almost on the verge of death. II then he realized that with this way of life, he would not be able to know the truth. After regaining his strength with food, Gautama gave himself up to contemplation on the banks of the Nerania River, and the disciples, reproaching their master that "the ascetic Gautama, having given up the struggle, had once again returned to a lavish life," left him. While meditating under the boddhi tree, Gautama "recalled" the details of his previous lives and realized how people are born and die according to their good or bad deeds and previously created karma. Gautama "understood" that the essence of beauty and ugliness, happiness and sorrow, depends on one's actions; that people who are happy today can be reborn in a sad state because of their ignorance and bad actions, while others can be reborn in paradise because of their good deeds and thoughts. Gradually, Gautama came to the conclusion that there is suffering, but there is also a way to get rid of that suffering. It consists in the suppression of all sense desires and will ultimately lead to the cessation of suffering, to nirvana. "I have learned the truth, the rebirth is over; I have lived a holy life; I have done what I had to do; the old existence will not return again! he exclaimed, "and ignorance was lifted from him, and he was filled with wisdom; the darkness was gone, and light was shed." 18 So Gautama became a Buddha, or " enlightened one."

The Buddha did not call himself a "savior" and did not intend to save others. He believed that salvation depended on each creature's own efforts. "Be your own islands, be your own refuge; do not seek refuge with others," 19 he said to his disciples before his death. The legend goes on to tell how the Buddha preached his teachings for 40 years. He taught how a person can achieve liberation without the help of gods and priests, and proclaimed equal opportunities for salvation for all.: for the noble and the despised, for the rich and the poor, for the saint and the sinner, for the brahmin and the pariah. Within two months of his "enlightenment," the Buddha had taught 60 disciples who, through their association with him, had reached the state of arhatship .20 These 60 arhats became the core of the first Buddhist community. After the creation of the sangha, the Buddha sent arhats in different directions to preach Buddhism, while he continued his preaching activities, leaving only one disciple, Ananda, with him. His name is often mentioned in the canonical literature. This beloved disciple of the Buddha accompanied his master for 25 years, and later-

16 Sddhartha is a proper name, meaning "fulfilled desire", Gautama is a family name. Subsequently, Gautama was called a Sakya-muni, or " saint of the Sakya lineage."

17 "Majjhima Nikaya". Ed. by V. Trenckner. L. 1888. Vol. 1, 26. 163.

18 Thera Narada. The Buddha and his Teachings. Colombo. 1964, pp. 31, 34.

19 "Dialogues of the Buddha". Ed. and transl. from de Pali by T. W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids. Vol. 1 - 3. Oxford. 1910 - 1923 (vol. 2: 16.2.100).

20 A state that allows you to break the chain of births and deaths caused by karma.

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wii recounted everything he had heard from the Buddha. Ananda's stories, which he narrated on behalf of the Buddha, formed the most extensive part of the Trinitaka-Sutra-Pitaka. After the death of the Buddha, Ananda took part in the first council of arhats, and then, condemned by the council for showing grief at the time of the Buddha's death, which is unworthy of an arhat, he retired to the forest, where he led a strict, ascetic life until the end of his days.

In the view of Buddhists, Gautama is an archetype of many previous Buddhas, who embodied the features of countless individuals and evolved over many millions of years in the fight against the forces of evil. According to this teaching, Buddhas have appeared since time immemorial. Hence the title "Tathagata" ("One who comes and goes", "One who has found the truth", "One who has attained perfection"), which Gautama gave himself. Some versions claim that before Gautama on Earth, there were six Buddhas. Therefore, in some sacred places of Buddhism, for example, in Sanchi and Bharkhut (Central India), seven stupas (shrine vaults) were erected in honor of the seven Buddhas and seven banyans ("sacred" trees) were planted. Other versions report the existence of 24 generations of Buddhas, while others report a thousand generations of Buddhas. Through this continuous chain of rebirths, the body of Gautama Buddha acquired unusual properties hidden under the outer shell of a human being. According to beliefs, this "spiritual body" could only be seen by true believers: the" magnificent body " of the Buddha was about 5.5 meters high, golden in color, and rays radiated from it, illuminating vast spaces. This idea of the" spiritual body " of the Buddha is a reflection of the ancient Indian idea that the bodies of great people emit light, and when meditating on contemplation, the intensity of the glow increases.

In other legends, there is an even more fantastic appearance of the Buddha, his personality is completely deified. His body is described as invisible and universal. All beings "living and moving exist in this body", that is, it is the absolute similarity, the unity of all things, nothing and everything 21 . An attempt to explain the reasons for this transformation was made by V. Ya. Toporov: "In India, by the middle of the first millennium BC, there was a well-defined, highly developed and thoroughly developed religious and philosophical tradition. It was she who absorbed the Buddha's teaching, first gradually replacing what contradicted her and introducing into it what was already known and familiar... And almost nothing remains of the original teaching of the Buddha, when its last purely formal signs are mixed with the cult of Shiva and magic in Tantric Buddhism, with local primitive beliefs in Tibetan and Mongolian Lamaism, with Taoism and partly Confucianism in China, with the cult of ancestors in the Japanese version of Buddhism"22 .

3. Schools and directions of Buddhism

Although the" noble"," middle " path indicated by the Buddha was considered effective only for members of the Sangha, the existence of the Buddhist community and the monks themselves, who did not produce any material goods, depended entirely on the attitude of the laity towards them. And the sangha gradually, over the course of many centuries, managed to establish strong contacts with the population. By suggesting that the believer follows the "middle" path, Buddhism leads away from reality. The monks were not particularly interested in what gods the population worshipped, what rituals it performed, or what ceremonies it participated in. They explained to him that the gods are also in the "wheel of life", also subject to suffering. Therefore, a Buddha who knows the truth is above the gods. The best thing a lay person can do is not to worship a Buddha or gods, but to observe the five moral rules on a daily basis: do not kill living beings, do not lie, do not steal, do not commit adultery, and do not drink alcohol. Instead of nirvana, dharma teachings, and meditation, they offered lay people the doctrines of karma and reincarnation, according to which a person could create good karma for himself by daily accumulating spiritual merit, and the main spiritual value was declared to be those thoughts and deeds that were aimed at the benefit of the Buddhist community. Therefore, when a monk collects food in the morning, he does not thank the faithful, but they do.-

21 E. Conze. Op. cit., p. 38.

22 "Dhammapada". Introduction, page 7.

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We want to thank the monk for giving them the opportunity to do a good deed. The Sangha offers believers an extensive inventory of moral and material activities, ranging from building religious buildings to simply repeating the "three pearls" formula three times or chanting "Om mani padme hum"23 to help them accumulate significant merit in this life. For those who pay little attention to spiritual values, but think about the meaning of existence, the monks tell about the origin of life, about the place of a person in this world, and how to create a better life in the future. By their own example, monks try to prove that they are happy, although they do not have material possessions, the possession of which becomes the goal of other people.

Over the centuries, members of the Buddhist community have created an extensive religious literature for the people, consisting of stories about the Buddha's past lives ("jatakas" in Pali and "avadanas" in Sanskrit). This literature can be seen as a kind of gospel for the busy householder, designed to excite his imagination and religiosity and thus make him loyal to the Buddhist community .24 The Sangha also took care of the spectacular, ceremonial side of the Buddhist religion, although, according to the teachings, the participation of a monk in various religious and festive ceremonies is a waste of time and effort for him. Nevertheless, all sorts of religious rites, religious ceremonies, spectacular performances, and festive fairs are organized in monasteries. Gradually, the monastery became the center of the social life of the district, satisfying not only the spiritual needs of the inhabitants, but also regulating economic, legal, family, community, educational and other relations in the local society.

Contacts between the Buddhist community and the population led to the adaptation of Buddhist teachings to local traditions and to the primitive beliefs of peoples of different countries; in the Buddhist community itself, there were constant disagreements on the interpretation of methods for achieving "enlightenment" and on disciplinary regulations. There has been controversy over whether oral and written traditions are consistent with the Buddha's "true" utterances. These external and internal processes have divided the Buddhist community into numerous schools, sects, and trends. According to the Nali tradition, the first schism of the Buddhist community occurred at the second Buddhist council, which took place in the first half of the IV century BC in the city of Vaishali (India). Buddhist sources explain the split in various ways: some attribute it to Monk Mahadeva's five points about the nature of the arhat25 ; others to disagreements about the truth of traditions in the presentation of Ananda; and still others to the problem of what language the Buddha preached in. These disputes led to the division of Buddhists into Sthavirs and Mahasanghikas.

According to tradition, in the third century BC, the third king of the Maurya dynasty, Ashoka (268-231 BC), declared himself the patron saint and protector of Buddhism. Buddhist monasteries received rich offerings from the king and prominent dignitaries. More and more kshatriyas (warriors) and brahmins (priests) became followers of this teaching. Simultaneously with the popularity of the teaching, the wealth and political influence of the Sangha grew. Abbots of monasteries, fighting for power and income, accused each other of heresy. To put an end to these differences and restore order, Ashoka ordered a third council, which was held in the city of Patalinutra in 253 BC. e. At this council, the basics of Theravada teachings were unified, and those who refused to follow these doctrines were expelled from the sangha as heretics. At the same council, it was decided to send missionaries outside India to promote Buddhist teachings. Groups of Buddhist monks were sent to many Eastern countries. Missionary work

23 The "three pearls" formula is as follows: "I seek refuge in the Buddha"; "I seek refuge in the Dharma"; "I seek refuge in the Sangha," which is repeated three times. In some countries (for example. Tibet, the Principality of Sikkim) this formula is four-pronged, and it begins like this: "I seek refuge in Lama", etc.: "Om mani padme hum" is currently meaningless.

24 E. Conze. Op. cit., p. 87.

25 Mahadeva stated that: 1) an arhat may commit sin under the influence of an unconscious temptation; 2) may be an arhat and not know it; 3) an arhat may have doubts about matters of doctrine; 4) it is impossible to attain arhatship without a mentor; 5) the first step to nirpana may begin with an exclamation, because "enlightenment" causes an exclamation of amazement.

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The activities of the sangha under Ashoka marked the beginning of the formation of Buddhism as a world religion. Ashoka's direct intervention in the internal affairs of the Sangha temporarily smoothed out the sharp differences between the adherents of various interpretations of Buddhism. But these disagreements have steadily widened and deepened, taking shape in new schools and directions.

The most orthodox school of Buddhism is the Theravadin sect (the school of old wisdom), or Sthavirs. The Theravadins and the Sarvastivadin sect that emerged from them revered Sariputra as an apostle of the Buddha and considered him the founder of their metaphysical teaching. According to Theravada, a person's consciousness is aroused by reincarnation. This phenomenal world is just a game of excited dharmas. The stilled dharma has no qualitative attributes, so it is unknowable. Nirvana, as the calm state of dharmas, is also beyond knowledge, beyond samsara. Theravadin teachings are now widespread in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. According to the mahasanghika teachings, the original consciousness is pure, but later it is polluted by passions and desires. The nature of things and phenomena cannot be bad or good, for pure dharma cannot be defined. In later years, this position was developed by the Sautrantikas and Madhyamikas in their teachings on emptiness.

Probably, at the third council, the Sarvastivadin sect split off from the Theravada school. Expelled from the cathedral, among other sects, they moved to Kashmir and Gandhara (Northwestern India), where they enjoyed authority and influence during the Kushan era (early 1st century - 30s of the 3rd century). The Sarvastivadin school played a major role in the spread of Buddhism. Followers of this school have lived in many parts of India, Central Asia, Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. The canonical Sanskrit literature of the Sarvastivadins, which is now preserved mainly in Chinese translations, was the primary source from which the peoples of East Asia were introduced to the teachings of the Buddha. According to the sarvastivadin doctrine, all existence consists of 75 elements( dharmas), of which 72 dharmas are capable of connecting with each other, and three dharmas are not connected: this is space; a calm state achieved with the help of knowledge; a calm state as a natural process when there are no external forces of influence. The last two states are identical to the state of nirvana. Sarvastivadins claimed that even arhatship does not release from the effects of karma. In their view, bodhisattvas (saints worthy of entering nirvana) are ordinary people who have only reached the state of arhatship. Therefore, they deny the supernatural powers of the Buddha and bodhisattvas. In the Kushan era, it was the Sarvastivadins who came into open controversy with the Sautrantiks. The Sarvastivadins gradually lost ground in fierce disputes over which canonical literature expresses the true teachings of the Buddha. The largest representative of this school, Vasubandhu (c. 320-400), even became one of the founders of the yogachara school, which was considered the orthodox Mahayana ("big chariot") school.

When looking at the history of Buddhism, it seems that the Theravadin teachings are most closely related to early Buddhism. However, the earliest Buddhist texts in Pali and Sanskrit, dating back to the second and first centuries BC, contain both ethical doctrines and mythological concepts of the supernatural powers of the Buddhas. The vague presentation of the metaphysical foundations of early Buddhism gave rise to different ideas about the nature of dharma, which led to the division of adherents of this religion into two main directions - hinayana ("small chariot") and mahayana. Hinayana emphasized the study of the nature of dharma and the achievement of nirvana in an ethical way, and Mahayana developed theories of divine substance and blind faith in its creative abilities. The Mahayana idea of "wise paths", according to which the cosmic Buddha is incarnated in various forms in order to save all beings from ignorance and suffering, has led to the emergence of numerous Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and even supernatural beings in the Buddhist worldview .26
According to tradition, at the end of the first century AD, King Kanishka decided to convene the fourth Buddhist Council in order to put an end to disagreements between different schools and trends.

26 D. T. Suzuki. Japanese Buddhism, 1938, pp. 17-18.

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Although the participants of the council made a certain compromise, which was expressed in the canonization of the Sarvastivadin doctrines, new Mahayanist trends clearly prevailed at the council. After the fourth council, there was a final separation between the Sarvastivadins and the Sautrantiks. The Sautrantiks believed that the true teachings of the Buddha were only set forth in the sutras, and that the abhidharma created later played a supporting role. The Sautrantiks accepted the theory of dharmas, but considered dharmas only as momentary manifestations of these elements in the present, denying their existence in the past and future. It is the subtle flashes of dharmas, they argued, that create the illusion of substance, and only in this sense can we speak of the reality of manifestations that fade in nirvana.

The Kushan period is the beginning of the heyday of Mahayana literature, which lasted for almost eight centuries and ended with the creation of a multi-volume work of sutras in Sanskrit, known as the Prajnaparamita Sutra ("Sutra of Transcendental Wisdom"). Creation and elaboration of the central doctrine of this canon, which is most fully revealed in the writings of Suddharmapundarika ("The Lotus of Good Law")27, "Vimalakirti-nirdesa" ("Interpretations of Vi.malakirti") and " Vajrachedika "("Diamond Sutra"), are attributed to the famous thinker of ancient India Nagarjuna (150 - 250), one of the founders of the Madhyamika school. Nagarjuna denied the reality of this world, the dharmas, and its components, considering them relative and conditional. He considered any phenomenon from the point of view of emptiness, that is, he did not recognize as real both external objects of the world and internal - psychic phenomena, and did not see the difference between nirvana and samsaroi .28
The seventh-century commentator Nagarjuna Chandrakirti explained in his Madhyamika Shastra (Treatise on Relativity) that "relativity is here the definition of the dharmas of being... but since there is no dharma that is non-relative, relativity itself, because of the absence of those objects to which it can be opposed, becomes as imaginary as a mirage"29 . If everything is relative, then there is no difference between nirvana and this world, between the "enlightened" and the unenlightened, between the wise and the foolish, between good and evil, between the moral and the immoral. If this is the case, then everyone should have equal opportunities for salvation. If the Buddha's compassion is unlimited, he must save everyone: the smart and the stupid, the saints and the sinners. On the subject of morality, Chandrakirti wrote that although all moral laws or iniquities are derived from illusory dharmas, "they can nevertheless cause either moral pollution or purification, just as a magical display of beauty inspires passion in those who have not yet realized their own nature, and as a vision evoked by the Buddha It is the cause of moral purification for those who practice the path of virtue. " 30 In other words, for a member of the sangha, the illusory manifestation of dharmas will cause moral purification; for a simple believer, the same process will be a source of moral pollution, and he must strictly observe moral norms of behavior in order not to succumb to the temptation of illusory dharmas. Therefore, Mahayana Buddhism believes that there are two paths to enlightenment: one is difficult, which is understood by wisdom, and the second is easy and accessible, based only on faith. The attainment of wisdom is the lot of the chosen, whose number is steadily decreasing; for the majority of people, only faith remains. The cosmic absolute of the Buddha's body, which is present in everything, is precisely the life force that pushes people on the path of salvation. But salvation can only be achieved with the help of a mentor. This explains the nature of the Bodhisattva cult, which in the Mahayanist view deliberately renounces nirvana in order to show people the way to salvation.

27 The Lotus of Good Law Sutra, probably written at the end of the second century A.D., holds a special place among Mahayana works: it is one of the first to record the stage in the development of Buddhist philosophy when the human personality of the Buddha was almost completely replaced by the divine substance of the eternal Buddha. In this work, the followers of Theravada are characterized as lazy and limited people, as egoists and heretics (S. Tachibana. The Ethics of Buddhism. Tokyo. 1926, p. 96).

28 E. Conze. Op. cit., p. 136.

29 Th. S tcherba tsky. The Concept of Buddhist Nirvana, p. 49. F. I. Shcherbatskaya suggests the term "relativity" instead of "emptiness".

30 Ibid., p. 128.

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Under the influence of the doctrine of the "cosmic body of the Buddha" and the emphasis on blind faith in Mahayana, a huge pantheon of deities gradually developed, from canonized saints-bodhisattvas to personified particles of the "cosmic Buddha" as the highest deities, objects of worship of believers: Amitabha (personification of boundless love and light), Avalokiteshvara (creative cosmic power, wisdom and compassion) Manjushri (wisdom-prajna), the many-faced goddess Tara, etc. Mahayana Buddhism of North Indian origin was thus transformed into an occult religion with sacraments and prayers. This religion offers a "high" philosophy for a select few, and a cult of worship, faith, and patience for the rest.

The Madhyamik school existed in India for about 800 years and disappeared at the end of the X-XI centuries. Translations of the Prajnaparamita Sutra had a profound influence on the religious and philosophical teachings of ancient China and Japan.

In the fourth century, the Madhyamik metaphysical doctrines contained in the Prajnaparamita Sutra were reworked into psychological concepts by the brothers Vasubandhu and Asanga in their work" Lankavatara Sutra", where the Buddha appears as a cosmic consciousness, which for the sake of saving people sometimes shows its" magnificent "physical body, which is a simple illusion. You can see it with the help of "accumulation of consciousness". These doctrines are further developed in the Avatamsaka Sutra, which interprets consciousness as an eternal cosmic principle that is present everywhere. Cosmic consciousness gives any substance and phenomenon a spiritual significance. This consciousness can be generated in thought through the contemplation of any object or phenomenon and thus call out the secrets of the universe. The Avatamsaka doctrine was popular with some Buddhist sects in China. It also to some extent influenced the formation of the tradition of contemplative-symbolic attitude to nature among the peoples of Japan, Korea and Vietnam.

Gradually evolving from the exoteric, relatively primitive practices and doctrines of early Buddhism, the Mahayana school reached a certain depth in Madhyamik philosophy. Then begins the process of degeneration of philosophical achievements, which is finally completed in Tantric Buddhism, which takes as its basis tantra-a special guide in ritual magic. At present, it is difficult to determine when Tantric practice appeared in Buddhism, since it was kept strictly secret for a long time and was inaccessible to the uninitiated. There can be little doubt that there is a direct connection between Tantric Buddhism and Indian magical practices. Before the advent of Buddhism, India was dominated by magical rites and ceremonies, which formed an essential part of Brahmanism as a whole, although it was emphasized that those who seek the truth must get rid of faith in magical powers. Buddhism has inherited some magical mantras , 31 which have been passed down to it mainly from Brahmanism and other local beliefs.

The main difference between Hindu Tantrism and Buddhist Tantrism is that the central concept of Hinduism is shaktism ("divine power"), which acts as a creative female aspect of the supreme god (Shiva) or his emanation, and the central ideal of Buddhist Tantrism is considered to be prajna ("knowledge","wisdom"). While the Hindu Tantrist tries to "unite with the divine power" in order to gain peace and power, the Buddhist Tantrist sees "divine power" as a force that creates illusions and can only be freed from it by means of prajna. Therefore, the Buddhist tries to free himself from any supernatural forces that make him a prisoner of the "wheel of life". Some Buddhologists believe that Buddhist Tantrism took shape in a certain system by the end of the third century. Even the early Mahasanghnkas in the Dharanipitaka had a system of magical formulas. The Manjushrimulakalpa, which dates back to about the beginning of AD, contains not only numerous mantras, but also descriptions of various rituals.

31 Mantras are magical formulas that supposedly protect you from danger and help you achieve well-being in life. In the earliest Sanskrit texts, mantras are known as dharani and in Pali texts as paritta.

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The value and significance of mantras depends not so much on the words that make up the spell, but on the will and insight of the reciter, and great importance is attached to intonation, repetition, ritual gestures and knowledge of magic diagrams. According to Tantric theory, the main ritual action should involve three aspects of the living entity: body, speech and thought. The body acts through gestures, speech through mantras, and thought through trance. Tantrism combines blind faith in the authority of a spiritual guide with Yogachara meditation practices and Madhyampka metaphysics. Tantrism has created a huge pantheon of mythological deities, supernatural forces, magic, witchcraft, and black magic. At the same time, Tantrists do not object to the metaphysical statement of the Prajnaparamita that the only reality is emptiness, and all other diversity is just a game of our sick imagination.

If the Buddha, as recorded in the Pali canon, prided himself on the fact that he did not keep secret the slightest knowledge that serves salvation, then for Tantrism, the separation between esoteric (hidden) and exoteric (open) practices is very important. The latter are accessible to all believers, while the former can only be learned by initiates under the personal guidance of a spiritual mentor. Without initiation, it is impossible to begin spiritual training. Such initiations are preserved only in primitive cults. Therefore, we can assume that Tantric Buddhism to some extent returned to primitive thinking and action.

All these religious-idealistic details play a certain social role. According to Pali sources, Gautama and his followers (500 arhats) belonged mainly to the two highest castes of Indian society - the brahmanas and the kshatriyas. They were well-off and respected people, and therefore could strive to achieve nirvana. And Buddhism did not gain its popularity immediately, but over the course of many centuries. As Buddhism spread, it came into contact with peoples who were at different stages of social development and had slightly different forms of social relations than in the areas of Northern India, the cradle of Buddhism. This helped to highlight those aspects of the teaching that best met the class needs of each society.

4. The beginning of the spread of Buddhism

Since the reign of Ashoka, the missionary work of Buddhist monks has taken on a broad interstate scale. Preachers of Buddhism began to appear more and more frequently in the countries adjacent to India, reaching as far as remote areas of Arabia, East and Southeast Asia in their religious zeal. If the population, incited by the priests of local religions, was hostile to their sermons, then the Buddhist missionaries did not engage in single combat and went further. If they managed to enlist the support of local rulers or find settlements in which the local clergy were more or less tolerant of the activities of monks, then Buddhist missionaries began active propaganda among the population. They gained followers and formed a Buddhist community. The life of the members of this community depended on the social situation. Under unfavorable conditions, the monks led a solitary life, maintaining the necessary contacts with the population to obtain food; with a successful combination of circumstances (patronage of the ruler or leader, dissatisfaction of the population with their priests), Buddhist communities became sources of active missionary activity. This ability of the Buddhist community to long-term peaceful coexistence with any cults, religions and social systems allowed it to survive for hundreds of years under the most unfavorable conditions. This was the case in India under Muslim rulers, in Ceylon during Portuguese, Dutch and English colonization, in Confucian China, in Japan, in Central Asia of the first centuries AD, in the countries of Southeast Asia. It was this ability to amalgamate that enabled Buddhist monks to wait until the right moment for the widespread adoption of their teachings.

Even at the time of its spread, Buddhism had a developed system of logic that allowed its preachers to win in disputes with their opponents, for example, in India and China. Buddhist monks served all layers

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societies-from despised castes to aristocrats. Buddhism assimilated the local religious beliefs. Armed with a colossal literature, Buddhist communities conducted "educational" work among the population in local languages, adapting canonical jatakas, avadanas, sutras and bringing them closer to folk legends and customs. The Buddhist system of ethics was organically interwoven with the traditional morality of class society. The cult parade of Mahayana Buddhism was a huge success among the people. The Sangha attracted thousands of destitute peasants and disillusioned aristocrats. The Buddhist community often became a significant social and political force in the state. The ruling classes were also interested in spreading Buddhism, because its doctrines helped to strengthen and preserve the existing order. The introduction of Buddhism was often accompanied by the introduction of the achievements of more advanced civilizations. Thus, the Tibetans, along with Buddhism, borrowed the secular sciences of India: grammar, medicine, astronomy and astrology; the peoples of Southeast Asia - literature, painting, theater and architecture of Indian civilizations. In addition, Buddhism strongly supported the idea of the divinity of the ruler, increasing his glory.

Even early Buddhism (B.C.) took care of regulating the relationship between the state and the Buddhist community, developing three successive stages of the relationship between the dharma and the state. In the first stage, the ruler agrees to perform certain functions for the sake of the people, and he is granted certain rights, including tax collection.32 If the ruler abused his power, people could go to other places, under the protection of another leader. But as the territory of the state expanded, this form of protection became unrealistic, and Buddhism created the doctrine of an all-powerful dharma that could destroy an unworthy ruler. The whole world was declared divided into two spheres - "two wheels" acting like the wheels of a chariot, the axis of which is human society, its desires, aspirations and destinies. Such a system is explained by the fact that the all-powerful dharma cannot operate in this world by itself and needs the submission or support of the state. Hence the interdependence of the state and the Buddhist community. The culmination of this theory is the concept of a universal ruler (chakravartin), who was declared to be a noble ruler and a bodhisattva's counterpart in this world. Like a bodhisattva, he is marked with 32 signs of a great man and is endowed with supernatural power. It is unique because no two chakravartins can exist simultaneously. Those places where Chakravartin was born and crowned, where he won the most significant victories and where he died, were declared "memorable". Over the remains of chakravartin was supposed to build a stupa, which is considered a religious merit to visit. The concept thus claimed a complete similarity between the statuses of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and chakravartin. Therefore, the latter's power could not be regarded as earthly or rational .33 The chakravartin set both wheels (dharma and state) in motion, representing spiritual and secular power. The third stage is the ideal state, in which the dharma as a cosmic force regulates the behavior of society, and the state is considered as an ethical institution that draws its authority from the dharma and is guided by the sangha.

According to another Mahayana concept, the phantoms of Buddhas and bodhisattvas accumulate in the ruler's body and form his divine essence. So, the king of Thailand is considered by believers to be one of the highest reincarnations. The "wealth of his personality" is contained in the sum of his virtues as a Bodhisattva. But since the "heavenly" forces unite in the personality of the ruler, this ruler is considered the protector and spiritual leader of the church, and the members of the sangha are obliged to obey him and follow his instructions, that is, they become the spiritual police of the monarch, the conductors of the ideology of the ruling classes.

(The ending follows.)

32 "Dialogues of the Buddha". Vol. 3: 27.

33 B. G. Gоkhale. The Early Buddhist View of the State. "Journal of the American Oriental Society". Vol. 89, 1969, N 4, pp. 731 - 738.

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